In tropical climates, which include parts of the United States, Central and South America, parts of Australia, South Africa and South-east Asia, orchids can be grown permanently out-of-doors.

The shade-loving genera can be accommodated beneath shade-cloth houses, which are open at the sides to allow air to flow through. This is the method used by commercial nurseries. Alternatively, the plants can be naturalized on trees in the garden. Here, once in position, they can grow into magnificent specimens with the minimum of care.

If you do not have a garden, your orchids can still enjoy the advantages of being outside for the summer. They are equally at home on a patio or even a balcony, provided they are shaded from direct sun during most of the day. Ideally, select a spot that is reached by either the early morning, the late afternoon or the evening sun only. This will ensure that the plants are in the shade during the hottest part of the day. Standing them against a white-washed wall will give them the added benefit of light reflected from behind. A roof garden may have just this situation.

In a garden, there are a number of places that will provide a good summer home for your orchids. It may be alongside a fence, a wall or a hedge, which will provide the necessary protection from the sun. Trees may also offer a shady place, but fruit trees should be avoided if there is any danger of ripe fruit crashing on the plants. They also harbour aphids and other pests that will get on the orchids.

Cattleyas are especially suited to naturalizing upon, and in their native Central America many are grown in this way in gardens, where they are a common sight flowering on the trunks and branches of trees. Where conditions are right for them, their aerial roots will be strong and active and provide most of the nourishment needed.

Check the compost (growing medium) for ants’ nests and vine weevils or their grubs. Destroy these by soaking the plant in a bucket of water for up to an hour. Check for the more easily seen pests such as slugs and snails, and also for the smaller, more troublesome red spider mites and aphids.

If you cannot find a sufficiently shady place for the orchids erect a shade-cloth roof above the plants on the bench, leaving open ends or sides to allow a free movement of air.

Orchids that are mounted on bark can be hung in trees, but they will require constant daily watering to ensure that they get enough moisture. Vandas, stanhopeas and other orchids in hanging baskets can be treated likewise. Aerial roots should remain active all through the summer and they will grow steadily if they are kept well sprayed.

Synonyms are Basella alba L.CEYLON SPINACH, B. rubra L.. B. rubra var. alba, B. conlifolia Lam.

Five other species of Xanthosoma have been in cultivation in various parts of the tropics for a considerable time: X. atrovirens Koch & Bouche (Dark leaf Malange, Indian Kale), a yellow-fleshed form; X. hrasiliense Engl. (Belembe, Calalu); X. caracu Koch & Bouche (Caracu), a white-fleshed species; X. malaffa Schott; Xi nignim (Veil.) Mansf.; X. violaceunz Schott, leaves violet-coloured with pink-fleshed corms.

Cultivars are by local farmers in Europe and Asia .

Native to tropical Asia, possibly India or China, now widely grown in many tropical regions. Introduced to tropical West Africa comparatively recently.

Cultivated in tropical Asia (India, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia); the Caribbean: West Africa. In the Philippines, the red-leaved form is grown in preference to cultivars with green leaves. Both forms are cultivated to a limited extent in West Africa.

A herbaceous perennial, 1.3-2.5 m in height. Stems: the main underground stems are generally referred to as tubers or corms and may be white, pink or yellow. The smaller offshoots produced by the main corm are often termed cormels; 10 or more cormels, 10-25 cm in length, are normally produced. Leaves: large, light green, sagittate or hastatc with a marginal vein and two large basal lobes, prominent marginal vein; petioles up to 3 in in length; pigmentation variable with red-purple forms occurring. Flowers: rarely formed, although flowering is more likely to occur in wet regions.

Most cultivars are tolerant to a wide range of soil conditions and grow well in moist fertile soils well supplied with organic material and essential elements. Supplementary applications of nitrogen are often advantageous during the early period of growth. Well adapted to high temperature conditions, low temperatures are liable to reduce the growth rate and lead to the production of relatively small leaves. Plants are normally tolerant to high levels of rainfall but some cultivars have a degree of drought resistance. Irrigation is required during dry periods to maintain a high rate of leaf production. Water stress is likely to encourage early flowering. Growth is likely to be limited at altitudes greater than SOO m, due to diurnal temperature variations. Normally a short-day plant, Basella responds to light shading by the production of larger leaves than develop under full exposure to sun. Flowering does not occur in day lengths longer than 13 hours. Basella is one of the tropical crops which has a C4 -cycle photosynthetic pathway.

Propagation is normally by means of small corms, as for Colocasia, although the tops of young plants are often removed and inserted as cuttings. Rooted cuttings or corms are planted on low ridges 75-90 cm apart, 90 cm between plants; the more vigorous forms may require a wider spacing. Approximately 2.5-5.0 t/ha of corms are required for planting. Earthing up is considered advantageous during the early part of the growing period, possibly followed by mulching during hot weather.

Plants normally produce roots from 5-8 cm in diameter within 70-90 days from sowing. The outer surface of the roots is sensitive to damage during harvesting. Yield: Yields of 15-24 t/ha may be obtained with good cultural techniques, including effective weed control. Seed production: Seed is not formed at low altitudes since a period of low temperature is required for the initiation of the flower stalk. At elevations over 1000 m flowering shoots 60-120 cm high may be produced. Seed should only be saved from plants which have first formed a satisfactory swollen root and do not flower until their second year. The plant is cross-pollinated, pollen being windborne over very long distances. It is therefore important that seed production of each B. vulgaris subspecies be sited in a separate area or zone. Seed yield is approximately 500 kg/ha; a single plant may produce up to 10 g of seed.

Roots should be firm, deep red in colour and free from cracks, fibrous roots or corky patches; the tops, where left intact, should be turgid and free from pests or diseases. For the fresh market, the roots are sold with or without leaves; when leaves are attached, the roots can be conveniently tied in bunches. Surplus soil is removed by washing and some form of grading may be carried out, based on size and color. Bunched beetroot may be stored at 0C and a relative humidity of 90% for up to 10 days, whereas topped roots may be stored at 0-1C for 55-90 days at a relative humidity of 90-95%.

The young leaves and shoots, particularly those of X. brasiliense which produces small corms, are also eaten. Preparation of the corms includes boiling, baking or frying. In West Africa, the corms are sometimes ground to produce ‘fufu’. A flour can also be made from the dried and peeled corms. The protein content of these is in the region of 2.2-4.1%. In most species, only the lateral cormels are edible. The starch content of the cormels of Yautia is generally considered to be higher than that of Colocasia, the tubers of some forms also contain a higher level of protein.

The warm-growing orchids include the popular phalaenopsis, and ideally they should be grown at a minimum winter night temperature of 18C (64F), with a summer day maximum of 32C (90F). However, in indoor conditions, where the atmosphere is naturally drier than in a greenhouse, they seem to do well at temperatures that are closer to those of the intermediate orchids. If you are growing your orchids indoors, you can usually find various positions around the home to suit these different temperature-range plants.

In more severe cases, direct sun will burn the leaves, causing black areas where the sun’s rays have destroyed the leaf cells.

Insufficient light, on the other hand, will create dark green leaves that can become over-extended and limp. The aim should be to give your orchids just enough light to produce a good mid-green, healthy foliage and pseudo bulbs that will develop flower spikes at the right time.

The minimum temperature is that experienced on winter nights, and indoors some form of artificial heating will be required to maintain that. A drop of a few degrees is not going to cause any harm, but if the winter night temperature is consistently lower by more than 3C (5F), the plants will suffer. Also, in colder temperatures other problems can arise, such as molds and damp spots on the orchids.

Orchids grown indoors have less light available, and the orchids will only receive this from one direction, so the dangers of giving too much light is not so great a problem. During the winter, it can be a disadvantage if plants are not getting enough light, and it can be difficult to increase this through the window area.

Daytime temperatures should always be significantly higher than those at night, and in winter there should be a rise in temperature of at least 6C (10F). Where temperatures hardly rise during the daytime, humidity naturally rises, and an imbalance occurs that will result in rots and molds. Orchids dislike being cold and wet, but they also cannot tolerate the other extreme of being hot and dry.

In a greenhouse or heated conservatory, it becomes easier to contra:, light levels, and in the winter the orchids will benefit from full light with no risk of burning from the sun s weak rays.

At this time, the glass should be cleaned of any paint shading or green algae to ensure that the orchids receive all the available light. This will also add considerably to the temperature on sunny days, thus saving on the artificial heating.

In addition to the organic composts (growing mediums), there are a number of man-made materials that provide synthetic alternatives. These are cheap and easy to use, and have the advantage in that they will not decompose and therefore cause the roots to rot.

Compost (growing medium) that is in good condition should have a pleasant, moist smell. If it smells sour, it has probably broken down to the plant can no longer gain any benefit from it.

It provides a hydroponic base for vegetable crops such as aubergines (egg plants), cucumbers and tomatoes, as well as cut-flower carnations. Rockwool is long lasting and enables plants to be grown under a complete and accurate feeding programme.

Once the compost has broken down in this way, the roots cannot thrive and will quickly die. Speedy repotting is essential. First cut away all the dead roots and remove all the old compost, then replace it with fresh material throughout. Roots that can be seen to circle the rim of the pot without penetrating to the bottom indicate that the compost (growing medium) is unsuitable.

When using Rockwool, use gloves and a mask because the glass fibres can irritate the skin. Another widely used material, which performs in much the same way as Rockwool, is horticultural foam. This can be used with either Rockwool or organic bark and peat mixes. Perlag and perlite are both porous horticultural products made from ground volcanic rock. They can be used on their own for certain orchids, such as cattleyas, or used as an aggregate to open up either Rockwool or bark and peat mixes. In Hawaii, volcanic pumice is available locally and widely used for orchids in that part of the world.

The advantages of these inorganic materials are that they are very light, easy to use, and, when the plants are repotted, the old mix can be left, causing less root disturbance.

The next day it will feel just right to work with. Do not return any unused damp compost to the bag, but leave it to dry out first. If it is returned to the bag while it is still wet, it will produce a mould, which will spread to the rest of the contents of the bag, Always store orchid compost dry.

This Cymbidium Mini Ice Antarctic’ looks striking in a square galvanized container. Where space is limited, this smaller-growing hybrid is ideal and will provide plenty of flowen during the early spring months. Keep the plant watered all year, and apply feed during most of the year.

Although each new species was greeted with enthusiasm, the first hybrids that appeared were met with both amazement and scepticism, for such an achievement was once thought impossible.

The first great heyday of orchid cultivation in Europe had been brought to an abrupt end. Following the war years, the coastal region of California from Los Angeles to San Francisco became an important orchid haven. In the warm climate, they could flourish out of doors with shade-cloth for protection from direct sun. This was a far cry from the long, cold winters in most of Europe.

With the relatively low cost of air travel, global events attract registrants from around the world. Interest is perhaps keenest in Japan, where orchid exhibitions are attended by hundreds of thousands of orchid fanciers and where prizes for the best plants start with a car.

Every third year, the World Orchid Conference Committee stages an event that alternates its venue between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. This sustained interest in orchids has resulted in the publication of many volumes written for the beginner and specialized grower.

Progress was slow until the botanists realized that orchids grew in conjunction with a microscopic fungus, without which the seed would not germinate. Following this discovery, in around 1903, the Frenchman Noel Bernard isolated the fungus and placed it in sterile flasks on an agar base on which the seed was sown.

Today, hybridizing has come a long way from the tentative steps taken by John Dominy in Veitch’s nursery. The Royal Horticultural Society in London is the world authority for the registration of orchid hybrids, where over 100,000 have been entered. This astounding figure continues to rise by over 3,000 per year, testimony to an insatiable appetite for better plants. The majority of these new varieties are produced for the pot-plant trade, which demands a supply of cheaply produced, easily grown orchids.

Many more are brought into production and sold unnamed in the world’s flower markets, there being little time or need for registration when a fast turnover exists. This mass increase in hybrid numbers is to be welcomed, because it takes the pressure off the wild species.

In the 1920s, a further step was taken by L. Knudsen, an American scientist who bypassed the natural fungus and produced the nutrients artificially, using a technique that is still used, with a few modifications, today.

Methods of raising orchids have improved so much that it is now possible to bloom seedlings within three to four years from the flasks, whereas previously this had taken up to seven years.

Older plants that have, over the years, produced a large number of pseudobulbs, will have several that are leafless. These may not be dead, and if they are still plump and green they will have some life left in them. At present they are supporting the newer, leafed pseudobulbs, passing on their stored food supply to the younger part of the plant. However, if there are more pseudobulbs out of leaf than in leaf, they will become a drain on the main plant and need to be removed. Where there is more than one new growth, it may be possible to separate the plant into two or more divisions, provided each has at least one new growth. To maintain flowering, a division should have at least three pseudobulbs in leaf with Jne new growth. With this in mind, -mu can separate your plant into as many divisions as it is safe to do so.

If it is a young, immature plant that will need dropping on again in a few months’ time, you need only use a pot about 2.5cm (l in) larger. Place a layer of the crocking material at the base of the pot, and a small amount of compost (growing medium) on top.

Stand the plant on this, ensuring that the base of the new growth is level with the rim of the pot If it stands higher, remove a little of the old compost from around the base until you can sit the plant deeper in the pot.

Position it so that the older pseudobulbs are against one side of the pot, allowing space for the plant to grow towards the other edge. If you are potting a phalaenopsis or similar monopodial type, place the plant at the centre of the pot, bearing in mind that it will grow upwards rather than outwards. Hold the plant, and pour in the compost (growing medium) all round, firming it down until the pot is full.

In a few weeks, you will be died with new growth and roots. It some species, such as Oncidiu ni ilkirami, a dense mat of roots will be reduced that will creep over the bark and hang down well below. You need a slab of tree fern or a piece of cork bark (with a wire hook), a sphagnum moss and coconut fibre, 1 plastic-coated garden wire, a pair ecateurs (pruners), and a pair of pliers. Cut a length of the plastic-coated wire i. using the pliers, wire the sphagnum ss and coconut fibre firmly to the tree n or piece of cork bark.

Mounting orchids on bark can be taken one step further. If you can find a suitable branch of oak or any type of tree except resinous pine, you can mount several small orchids on the tree to good effect. This will form an attractive feature in a greenhouse and, provided they are sprayed regularly, the plants will thrive.

Not all large plants need to be divided into smaller pieces, unless you rant to increase your stock. Smaller- !rowing species that will not become =manageable can be left as one specimen plant, provided that most or all of the pseudobulbs are leafed. Where there is a cluster of leafless pseudobulbs a( the centre of a plant, these need to be removed or reduced in number before they weaken the plant. The exception here is with the deciduous lycastes and angulocastes, where only the leading pseudobulbs are in leaf at any one time. When you have divided your plant, remember to write out new labels for cath piece of the plant. Return the plants to their growing area and give them a light overhead spray to prevent any dehydration through their leaves after the root pruning.

Separate the orchid into as many divisions as you wish, but bear in mind that to maintain flowering, a division will need to have at least three pseudobulbs in leaf with one new growth.

Wherever possible, specimen plants are always worth retaining intact. It seems a little unfair, when a plant has done its absolute best to grow well to reduce it to a mere seedling that has to start all over again.

As gardeners, we are simply trying to get the best of both worlds and to produce a strong, healthy-looking plant with a good display of blooms. By carefully controlling the temperature and light, it is possible to produce flowers on all your orchids in their regular season. It is harder to achieve this in a mixed collection because individual plants will vary in exactly what they need to induce flowers.

As most amateur collections consist of a selection of “one-off plants”, it is helpful to find out the requirements of each orchid. Even in the smallest greenhouse, plants hung higher and closer to the light are more likely to bloom than those lower down on the benches, where it can be just a little too dark and warm. An orchid that fails to bloom in what you consider to be perfect growing conditions need only be moved to the opposite end of the greenhouse to induce it to flower in its season.

The alternative to keeping your orchids whole, but containing their growth, is to divide them up into smaller pieces. This is regularly done with orchids and is a most successful way of reducing the size of a plant. However, with the smaller-growing species, it is often not until they reach a certain size that their full potential and true beauty can be seen.

Do this wits small bent piece of plastic-coated rather like a hair pin. This become quite easy with those orchids that h an extended rhizome between pseudo bulbs, but take care not to sr the growth by bending it back too In time, the plant will grow into a compact mound of pseudobulbs that there is no more room and create a den display of blooms.

Alternatively, where small plants are growing in baskets suspended in the greenhouse, the now growths can be allowed to encircle pot or basket in which the plant 5 growing. This is where plastic pot. This method will also work well with plants in squaw wooden baskets.

Most pests are more likely to be encountered in a greenhouse, where the warm, humid conditions are ideal for slugs and snails, for example. In the home, where there is a much drier environment, it is the smaller, gregarious insects and mites such as red spider mite that might make an appearance. You need to he aware of these pests and to look out for them.

More importantly, you need to be able to identify the damage done, which is often the first indication that you have a problem. Over the years, many dangerous chemicals have been used to eradicate pests, but today less drastic controls are available, which do much less harm to the environment and to ourselves.

There is no other plant family that will hybridize to the same extent as the orchid. They are highly evolved plants and many are still evolving. This, combined with their dependency upon insects for pollination, has influenced their ability to be hybridized, with f ew constrictions. In the wild, natural hybrids are a fairly common occurrence, and this is proved when a man-made cross produces flowers identical to the species. Laelia gouldiana, for example, is considered to be a natural hybrid between L. anceps and L. autumnalis.

Not all orchid blooms can be described as beautiful, however. While the most favoured and widely grown orchids are undeniably lovely, there are many whose flowers are curious, strange and even grotesque in appearance. The genus containing the greatest number of species is Bulbophyllum, but, among its thousand or so species, there are very few that could be described as pretty. While all orchids conform to one basic design, this has been duplicated and modified a thousand times, each variation designed to suit one orchid’s particular habitat or way of growing.

The ideal aspect for summer growing is a window that receives either the morning or evening sun, but not direct sun during the hottest part of the day. Most indoor kinds will be happy with this situation. Those orchids that like the shadiest places, such as phalaenopsis and paphiopedilums, will do equally well in a window that does not receive too much sun in summer. Cattleyas and dendrobiums are examples of orchids that like a considerable amount of light, and these would be well suited to a window that receives a great deal of sun, provided there was some shading between the plants and the glass.

Blinds or net curtains would be sufficient to prevent burning from direct sun, while giving the plants the extra light they need for optimum growth and ripening of the pseudobulbs. In the winter, most orchids will be comfortable in a well-lit window, because the sun will not reach high enough in the sky to cause any problems with burning. The high-risk time here is in the early spring, when the sun begins to climb higher each day, gradually gaining strength.

Certain plants will quickly need to be moved to a less sunny aspect. Whichever room the orchids are growing in, they need to be close to the window and the light. Indoors, this light is usually available from only one direction, so remember to take full advantage of it. Always place the orchids so that the back of the plant is facing the window, with the new growths facing into the room. In this way, tender new leaves cannot become accidentally burnt, and the older pseudobulbs can be well ripened to assist flowering.

From among the immense number of hybrids raised, several alliances that contain numerous related genera have emerged. Among these the most favoured are the Cattleya alliance, the Odontoglossum alliance and the Vanda alliance. Within these three natural genera, alliances can be found consisting of anything from two natural genera (Laelia x Cattleya = Laeliocattleya) to six (Cattleya x Brassavola x Broughtonia x Laelia x Schomburgkia xSophronitis = Mooreara), and, in a few instances, nine (Cattleya x Brassavola x Broughtonia x Cattleyopsis x Diacrium x Epidendrum x Laelia x Schomburgkia x Sophronitis = Sallyyeeara). Here, there appears to be no limit on the multiples, which have led to some astonishing results.

The spectacular vandas from Southeast Asia appear, at first glance, to be compatible with the vast number of angraecoid orchids from Africa and Madagascar. The foliage of Angraecum sesquipedale, for example, resembles that of the vandas more closely than those other monopodials, the phalaenopsis. However, the vandas are closer in evolutionary terms to the phalaenopsis, and these two will hybridize, along with many others that make up this alliance but that look totally different.

At present, we are denied a union between the angraecums and phalaenopsis, and can only speculate on what the results might be. A few hybrids from the crossing of angraecums and vandas have been achieved, but with little result.

Red spider mite is a pest will attack most orchids, but in particular the softer-leaved dendrobiums, lycastes and coelogynes, as well as cymbidiums. Individually, they are extremely small, but they can just about be seen with the naked eye, although more easily with a magnifying glass. This will show a yellowish mite, moving across the underside of the leaf surface.

The bees will enter a greenhouse from outside, removing pollen as they leave the flowers where they have searched unsuccessfully for nectar. Prevent bees from entering your greenhouse by covering the ventilator space with a fine-gauge netting. Remember to do the same to the doorway if this is left open during hot weather. Mice find orchid pollen particularly attractive as a good source of food. If you suspect you have mice, which will come in from outside as the weather gets cold in winter, lay humane traps and be sure to release them well away from the greenhouse.

Mealy bugs insects are larger than aphids and therefore more easily seen. They measure about 3mm long. They have soft, pink bodies and cover themselves in a white, cottonwool like substance, which gives a clear indication of their presence. They tend to congregate at the base of leaves and in axils on dendrobiums, among others.

False red spider mite is a similar pest, which attacks the fleshier leaves of phalaenopsis paphiopedilums, causing pitting ant yellowing of both surfaces. Looked a. under the magnifying glass, this pest is similar in appearance to red spider mile You can get rid of it in the same way as treating the more common red spider mite, but destruction to leaf surface cannot be repaired, and a plant has to be grown out of the disfigurement.

Weevils and caterpillars are leaf-chewing pests will eat large chunks from leaves and flowers in a short time. The weevils are nocturnal, spending their days buried in the compost (growing medium), which makes them particularly difficult to catch. Their grubs also inhabit the compost and harm root tips. Search for these at night while you are looking for slugs. Occasionally, they will be seen by day, as are various kinds of caterpillar.

When mature, the adults settle down in one position on the leaf under their domeshaped shell where the eggs are laid, and at this stage they are quite easy to spot. Some will congregate in large colonies, while others are almost solitary, spacing themselves out well. Various kinds will live on the leaf surface, mostly on the undersides or out of sight beneath the sheaths on cattleyas, which are particularly prone to scale insect attacks. Where this pest is present, it will settle on almost any orchid. The damage is caused when it pierces the leaf surface, which results in unsightly yellow patches.

Woodlice, ants and earwigs are pests that inhabit cool, damp, shady places, and under the staging in a greenhouse is the ideal home for woodlice. Here they will burrow into the compost (growing medium), breaking it down prematurely and causing it to clog.

Once the visible culprits have been dealt with, treat the plants with systemic insecticide on a regular basis until you can be sure that successive generations have been killed. Scale insects are more active in the spring and summer, but in a warm greenhouse will continue to breed throughout the winter. They sometimes excrete a honeydew, which in turn will attract ants to “milk” them, in the same way as they do aphids. This honeydew will grow sooty molds, which can further disfigure the leaf.

Synonym is Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) Schott

Common names are Giant Taro, Giant Alocasia (Eng.); Alava, Alu (Ind.); Sente (Indon.); Birah (Mal.); Kape (Pacif. Is.); Uvea (Polyn.); Toyoeu (Braz.)

Local forms are selected for specific areas.

Indigenous to India, Malaysia and Sri Lanka, not widely cultivated but occurs wild in some areas.

Cultivated forms of the various species are grown in India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Burma, the Philippines, Taiwan, China, South Pacific, tropical Africa, the Caribbean, Central and South America and in the tropics generally.

A large, erect herb, 24 m in height. Corm: a modified form of stem, growing immediately below the surface of the soil, black or dark brown in colour. Stems: thickened, up to 3 m or more in height and 20 cm in diameter. Leaves: large, sagittate, up to 1 m in length, without a marginal vein; petiole 1-1.2 m in length. Leaves in line with the main axis of the petiole. Both stems and leaves contain a viscous, milky fluid. Flowers: a spathe, with separate male and female section in spadix. Fruit: a berry, red when ripe.

Tolerant to a wide range of soil conditions, although a high level of organic material in the soil is required for the production of optimum yields, particularly from the green form. Initial applications of essential elements may be followed by supplementary applications of nitrogen. A temperature range of 25-30C is suitable for both forms, both of which appear to respond to fairly stable high temperatures. High levels of rainfall are unlikely to limit growth but irrigation is necessary during dry periods, particularly for the red form which is sensitive to drought conditions. Both forms grow well at low altitudes, where temperature fluctuations are limited. Daylength variation does not appear to affect this crop to any significant extent although high light intensities are required to maintain regular leaf formation and development, and flowers are rarely formed in long days.

Seeds, which are often mixed with dry sand to ensure uniform distribution, are normally sown broadcast on prepared beds at a rate of 3-10 g/m2 (1.5-2 kg/ha). They may also be sown on nursery beds and the seedlings transplanted to rows 20-30 cm apart, 10-15 cm between plants. Very vigorous species or cultivars may be transplanted to 30-40 cm X 3040 cm square spacing. Broadcast sown seedlings may also be thinned to 15-22 cm apart each way, or at more liberal spacings if they have a very branching habit. A grass mulch is sometimes used for covering freshly sown seeds to protect them from heavy rain. This mulch may be removed.

Plants mature in 400-600 days from establishment but may remain in an edible condition for a considerable period. The basal part of the stem, which may grow to 1 m in height and 20 cm in diameter, is the main source of food, although the cormels are sometimes used. Yields of 7-12 t/ha have been reported.

For seed production, plants are established at about 100-120 cm apart each way. Pollination is by insects and the general method of seed production is similar to that of Amaranthus spp. Seeds are produced about 100-120 days from sowing, but total seed yield is normally less than that of most species of Amaranthus. Approximate yields in Nigeria are: green form, 8 kg; red form, 14 kg.

The leaves and young shoots of both forms are used in soups and stews.